Survey the widespread movements for independence across Spanish and Portuguese America, driven by Creole frustration and catalyzed by Napoleon's invasion of Spain. Key figures include Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín.
Who were the Creoles (criollos) and what was their primary grievance?
Creoles were people of pure Spanish descent born in the Americas. Though often wealthy landowners, they were resentful of the peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) who held all the top positions in colonial government and the church.
How did Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 catalyze Latin American independence?
Napoleon deposed the Spanish king and placed his brother on the throne. This broke the chain of political legitimacy, leading many Creoles to argue that sovereignty now rested with the people, prompting them to form their own ruling juntas (councils).
Who was Simón Bolívar, and what was his nickname?
A wealthy Creole from Venezuela who became the foremost leader of independence movements in South America. He is known as "El Libertador" (The Liberator).
What was Bolívar's unfulfilled dream for post-independence South America?
He envisioned a unified super-state called Gran Colombia, similar to the United States. However, regional rivalries and geographic barriers caused the federation to collapse into the separate nations of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador.
Who was José de San Martín?
An Argentine general who was a key leader in the southern part of South America. He led forces that secured independence for Argentina, Chile, and played a crucial role in liberating Peru.
What was the "Grito de Dolores"?
The "Cry of Dolores," delivered by Father Miguel Hidalgo in 1810. It was a call to arms for the peasants and mestizos of Mexico, marking the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence.
How did Brazil's path to independence differ from that of Spanish America?
It was largely a peaceful process. When Napoleon invaded Portugal, the royal family fled to Brazil. In 1822, Prince Dom Pedro, the king's son, declared Brazil independent and became its first emperor, avoiding a major war.
What were some of the major challenges facing newly independent Latin American nations?
They suffered from political instability, economic dependency on foreign powers, deep social and racial divisions, and a lack of experience in self-government, which led to the rise of military strongmen.
Who were the "caudillos"?
Military strongmen who came to power in many Latin American countries after independence. They controlled politics through personal charisma, patronage, and military force, rather than through democratic institutions.
